Summary — What This Chapter Covers

1. Maps

Every Paper 2 exam includes a topographical map — it could be from anywhere in the world. It always comes with a key, a scale, and grid lines (northings and eastings). Almost every mark on the map questions depends on you using these three things correctly, so this is the single most "free marks if you know the method" part of the whole exam.

Grid References

Think of the map as a giant piece of graph paper. The numbers running along the bottom of the map are the eastings (they tell you how far east you are). The numbers running up the side are the northings (how far north you are). The golden rule for remembering the order is: "along the corridor, up the stairs" — read the easting first (walk along the bottom), then the northing (climb up the side).

Worked Example (from the textbook): What is the six-figure grid reference of the junction to the north of point B in Fig 1.1?
Answer: 017 517

Scale & Measuring Distance

IGCSE maps are almost always scaled at 1:25,000 (1 cm on the map = 250 m in real life) or 1:50,000 (1 cm = 500 m in real life). The number after the colon tells you how many real-world centimetres are "packed into" each centimetre on the paper — so a bigger second number means the map covers a much larger area in less detail.

Bearings

A bearing is a precise compass direction given as a number of degrees, always measured clockwise from north (0°). There are 16 named compass points (N, NNE, NE, ENE, E... all the way round), but for exact bearings you use a protractor.

Worked Example: B is south-west of A → the bearing works out as 230°. Notice: south-west sits between 180° (S) and 270° (W), and 230° is indeed in that range — a great way to sanity-check your protractor reading.

Height & Topography

Height on a map is shown three ways:

Cross-Sections

A cross-section is essentially a "side view slice" through the landscape along a line drawn on the map — imagine cutting through a hill with a knife and looking at the exposed slice.

Map Keys

Every map has a key/legend translating its symbols into meaning — things like chimneys, castles, waterfalls, dwellings, monuments, shorelines, and depth contours. You won't need to memorise every symbol, but you must be comfortable cross-referencing the key constantly while answering questions — never guess at what a symbol means.

2. Graphs & Diagrams

Before picking a graph type, you first need to know what kind of data you're dealing with:

Line Graphs

The simplest way to show continuous data changing over time or space — both axes are numerical. A river cross-section is actually a special type of line graph.

Bar Charts & Histograms

A bar chart is for discrete data — bars are equal width, equally spaced apart (gaps between bars), and can be compared easily. A histogram looks similar but is for continuous data — bars must touch with no gaps, because the data flows continuously from one category into the next.

Compound (Divided) Bar Charts

Bars are split into segments that stack up to 100%, letting you show several categories within one bar — e.g. numbers of cars, buses, lorries and bikes at a traffic count, all in a single stacked column per time period.

Population Pyramids

A special type of histogram, split into male (left) and female (right), showing age-sex structure of a population. The overall shape tells a story: a wide base = high birth rate (younger population); a narrow base = declining birth rate (ageing population).

Pie Charts

Shows proportions of a whole — segments must add up to 100%. Best used for a small number of categories only, or it becomes a mess of thin slices.

Rose Diagrams

Uses multidirectional axes (like a compass rose) to plot data such as wind direction. Bars point outward in the direction the data relates to, with length showing frequency/value.

Triangular Graphs

Used when data splits into exactly three components that add up to 100% — classic example: soil composition of clay/sand/silt. Read each side in the direction shown by the arrows (can be clockwise or anticlockwise — always check!).

Scatter Graphs & Correlation

Used to show the relationship between two variables (e.g. width vs depth of a river channel). Points are never connected — instead, you draw a single straight line of best fit through the middle of the scatter to show the overall trend.

Choropleth Maps

Maps shaded in different tones of one colour according to a key — darker shade usually = higher value (e.g. income, population density, rainfall). Good for showing a "big picture" pattern across an area, but makes it look like there's a sharp boundary change between adjacent regions even when the real change is gradual.

Proportional Symbols Maps

Circles (or other symbols) are drawn in different sizes proportional to a value at each location — e.g. bigger circle = higher GDP. Great for comparing many places at once, but hard to read the exact value and symbols can overlap when data is close together geographically.

Pictograms

Data shown using repeated symbols/icons drawn to scale, where each symbol = a set value (shown in a key). A symbol can be partial to represent a proportion (e.g. half a car icon = half the standard value). Useful for discrete data when exact accuracy isn't critical.

3. Written Material

Sources can be books, leaflets, posters, newspapers, journals — anything printed. The exam will usually give you a short passage and ask you to extract specific pieces of information from it only — meaning you must not bring in outside knowledge unless the question specifically allows it (watch for wording like "using Fig. X only" vs "suggest," which invites your own understanding too).

Worked Example (from textbook): A passage describes ways food supply was increased — irrigation, fertiliser, deforestation, terracing, mechanisation, etc. Asked for "two ways of increasing the area cultivated" and "two ways of making agriculture more intensive," using Fig. 6.1 only:

4. Photographs & Pictorial Material

This tests pure observation. The command word is almost always "describe" — and that word has a very specific meaning here: say exactly what you can see in the photo, nothing you're inferring or assuming.

When describing a photo, systematically scan for:

• Physical features: vegetation, relief, drainage, distinctive landforms (cliffs, rivers, deserts)
• Human features: buildings, industry, transport, urban/rural/fringe setting
• Relief: height and shape of the ground surface
• Agriculture: animals, crop type, land use, farm buildings
• Settlements: rural/urban, building types, spacing pattern (linear/dispersed/nucleated)
• Housing: size, number of storeys, condition, vacant plots

Field Sketches

A labelled sketch drawn from a photo or real observation, used to highlight key geographical features. Must include: a title, location/site number, compass direction, and clearly labelled key features.

Worked Example: A photo shows a waterfall in a river's upper course. Question: identify the landform, then sketch and label its key features.

What to Memorise

Concepts Checklist

• I can read and give a 4-figure grid reference
• I can read and give a 6-figure grid reference
• I can measure straight-line distance using map scale
• I can measure curved/winding route distance using the pivot method
• I can take and describe a bearing using a protractor
• I can identify spot heights, contour lines, and trig stations
• I can interpret topography (steep/gentle slopes, valleys, hills) from contour spacing
• I can construct and interpret a cross-section
• I know the difference between continuous, discrete, quantitative and qualitative data
• I know when to use a bar chart vs a histogram
• I can read and interpret a population pyramid
• I can calculate degrees for a pie chart segment
• I can identify positive, negative, and no correlation on a scatter graph
• I understand the strengths/limitations of choropleth and proportional symbol maps
• I can read a pictogram accurately using its key
• I know the difference between "describe" and "suggest" command words
• I can describe a photograph using only what is visible (no assumptions)
• I know the geographical rules for drawing a labelled field sketch

Exam Tips — Traps & What Examiners Want