Cambridge IGCSE History · Russia
How Did the Bolsheviks Gain &
Consolidate Their Rule?
The Big Idea: The Provisional Government failed because it was slow, unelected, and refused to give people what they wanted (peace, bread, land) — so a small, disciplined party, the Bolsheviks, seized the moment in October 1917, then fought a brutal civil war and made huge economic compromises just to keep hold of power.
1. How Effective Was the Provisional Government in 1917?
Short answer: not very. Here's exactly why it collapsed.
Dual Power — Two Governments, One Country
Picture two people trying to drive the same car from two different seats, each with their own steering wheel. That's Dual Power. When the Tsar abdicated in March 1917, the Duma (Russia's semi-parliament) formed the Provisional Government — 12 unelected representatives meant to be a temporary caretaker until proper elections. But it had to share the stage with the Petrograd Soviet, a council of workers' and soldiers' representatives that had far more genuine support on the streets.
The Soviet immediately undercut the government by issuing Soviet Order No.1, which told the Russian Army to obey the Soviet, not the government. Think about how useless a government is if it can't even guarantee the army will follow its orders. On top of that, extremist parties (the Bolsheviks especially) grew stronger inside the Soviet and kept encouraging strikes — meaning the Provisional Government could never fully govern without the Soviet's cooperation, and the Soviet often refused to give it.
Why this matters for your essay
Dual Power isn't just a fact to state — it's the root cause of nearly every other Provisional Government failure. Every time you explain why the government was weak, you can trace it back to this: it never had full authority in the first place.
Avoiding the Big Issues: Elections & Land
The Provisional Government did pass some quick, easy reforms — abolishing the death penalty, legalising free speech/voting/striking, releasing political prisoners, and disbanding the hated secret police (the Okhrana). These were good, but they were the easy wins.
The two things that actually mattered to ordinary Russians — elections and land — were dodged. The government knew it hadn't been elected, so it wanted elections to give it legitimacy, but it never actually set a date. Meanwhile, peasants (who made up most of Russian society) desperately wanted landowners to give up their land. The government kept saying "wait for the election results" — but the peasants got tired of waiting and, by mid-1917, simply started seizing land illegally themselves.
Analogy
Imagine a new headteacher who cancels detention (easy, popular) but keeps "postponing" the decision on whether to fix the broken heating system all winter. Eventually students just start bringing in their own heaters — that's the peasants seizing land.
The July Days — A Missed Opportunity?
By July 1917, food shortages, Kerensky's disastrous June Offensive (an attempt to push back Austrian troops that failed badly), and general government instability sparked huge protests in Petrograd. Sailors from Kronstadt joined in, and protestors chanted Bolshevik slogans like "Peace, Bread, Land" and "All Power to the Soviets." Thousands demanded the Soviet and the Bolsheviks seize power right then.
Lenin refused. He judged that the Bolsheviks weren't ready. The government responded by using loyal troops to restore order and arresting key Bolsheviks (including Trotsky). Lenin had to flee to Finland, leaving the party temporarily leaderless.
THE JULY DAYS — CAUSE AND EFFECT
Worsening food June Offensive Ministers quit
shortages + fails badly + → instability
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v v v
WIDESPREAD PROTESTS (3–6 July)
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v
Kronstadt sailors join + chant Bolshevik slogans
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v
Crowd demands Bolsheviks take power — LENIN SAYS NO
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v
Government uses army to restore control, arrests Bolsheviks
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v
Lenin flees to Finland — party weakened
Historians are divided: was refusing to act a costly mistake (a missed "revolution from below"), or a wise decision to avoid a premature, doomed uprising? Both are valid exam arguments — pick a side and justify it.
The Kornilov Affair — The Turning Point
By September, Kerensky (now Prime Minister, and the only person sitting in both the government and the Soviet) was desperate to restore order. He appointed General Kornilov as army commander. What happened next is genuinely disputed by historians:
| Interpretation 1 | Interpretation 2 |
|---|
| Kornilov marched on Petrograd intending to overthrow the Provisional Government himself. |
Kerensky asked Kornilov to bring troops in to restore order, then panicked and changed his mind when Kornilov actually arrived. |
Whatever the truth, Kerensky's reaction is what matters for consolidation of Bolshevik power: he panicked, released Bolshevik prisoners, and armed the Red Guard so they could "defend" Petrograd from Kornilov. Meanwhile, Bolsheviks infiltrated Kornilov's troops and got them to desert, and railway workers went on strike to disrupt his supply lines.
The key consequence
By the end of September: Kornilov was arrested, Kerensky's authority was shattered, and — most importantly — the Red Guard was now armed and never gave the weapons back. Kerensky had accidentally handed the Bolsheviks the exact tool they needed to seize power a month later.
Continuing the War
Russia's involvement in WWI was hugely unpopular — millions of casualties, mass desertion, and food/fuel shortages back home. But the Provisional Government kept fighting because it needed British and French financial support. This directly clashed with the Petrograd Soviet, which declared in March that it couldn't support the war.
The June Offensive (Kerensky's failed attempt to push the Austrians back) was the final straw — it increased desertions and pushed soldiers toward Bolshevik propaganda, since the Bolsheviks were the only major party promising an immediate end to the war.
Practice Question
"Explain why the Provisional Government lacked popular support." (6 marks)